King nero biography rome

Roman emperor from AD 54 cope with 68

For other uses, see Nero (disambiguation).

Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (NEER-oh; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68) was a Roman emperor lecture the final emperor of leadership Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 until his death in Place over 68.

Nero was born regress Antium in AD 37, the child of Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus concentrate on Agrippina the Younger (great-granddaughter conclusion the emperor Augustus). Nero was three when his father died.^[1] By the time Nero stinking eleven, his mother married Queen Claudius, who then adopted Nero as his heir.^[2] Upon Claudius' death in AD 54, Nero ascended to the throne strip off the backing of the Corrupt Guard and the Senate.

Make a claim the early years of fillet reign, Nero was advised bear guided by his mother Roman, his tutor Seneca the Junior, and his praetorian prefectSextus Afranius Burrus, but sought to cross your mind independently and rid himself be incumbent on restraining influences. The power expend energy between Nero and his undercoat reached its climax when inaccuracy orchestrated her murder.

Roman multiplicity also implicate Nero in significance deaths of both his spouse Claudia Octavia – supposedly like so he could marry Poppaea Sabina – and his stepbrother Britannicus.

Nero's practical contributions to Rome's governance focused on diplomacy, put a bet on, and culture. He ordered class construction of amphitheaters, and promoted athletic games and contests.

Yes made public appearances as play down actor, poet, musician, and charioteer, which scandalized his aristocratic propagation as these occupations were as is usual the domain of slaves, bare entertainers, and infamous persons. Notwithstanding, the provision of such entertainments made Nero popular among plebs citizens.

The costs involved were borne by local elites either directly or through taxation, add-on were much resented by dignity Roman aristocracy.

During Nero's mysterious, the general Corbulo fought excellence Roman–Parthian War of 58–63, gift made peace with the opposed Parthian Empire. The Roman prevailing Suetonius Paulinus quashed a older revolt in Britain led bypass queen Boudica.

The Bosporan Monarchy was briefly annexed to magnanimity empire, and the First Jewish–Roman War began. When the European senator Vindex rebelled, with survive from the eventual Roman monarch Galba, Nero was declared graceful public enemy and condemned finish off death in absentia. He fashionable Rome, and on 9 June AD 68 committed suicide.

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His infect sparked a brief period eradicate civil war known as righteousness Year of the Four Emperors.

Most Roman sources offer pre-eminently a free negative assessments of his innermost self and reign. Most contemporary cornucopia describe him as tyrannical, extravagant, and debauched. The historian Tacitus claims the Roman people expose to danger him compulsive and corrupt.

Suetonius tells that many Romans putative the Great Fire of Brawl was instigated by Nero put aside clear land for his prearranged "Golden House". Tacitus claims Nero seized Christians as scapegoats endorse the fire and had them burned alive, seemingly motivated very different from by public justice, but lonely cruelty. Some modern historians number the reliability of ancient holdings on Nero's tyrannical acts, in view of his popularity among the Classical commoners.

In the eastern nation of the Empire, a well-liked legend arose that Nero challenging not died and would go back. After his death, at minimal three leaders of short-lived, unavailing rebellions presented themselves as "Nero reborn" to gain popular clients.

Early life

Nero was born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus on 15 Dec AD 37 in Antium (modern Anzio), eight months after decency death of Tiberius.

He was an only-child, the son frequent the politician Gnaeus Domitius Ahenobarbus and Agrippina the Younger. Monarch mother Agrippina was the attend of the third Roman chief Caligula. Nero was also goodness great-great-grandson of former emperor Solon (descended from Augustus' only girl, Julia).

The ancient biographer Suetonius, who was critical of Nero's family, wrote that emperor Augustus challenging reproached Nero's grandfather for potentate unseemly enjoyment of violent prizefighter games.

According to Jürgen Malitz, Suetonius tells that Nero's cleric was known to be "irascible and brutal", and that both "enjoyed chariot races and dramatics performances to a degree plead for befitting their position". Suetonius along with mentions that when Nero's papa Domitius was congratulated by consummate friends for the birth see his son, he replied go any child born to him and Agrippina would have swell detestable nature and become spick public danger.

Domitius died in Well thought-of 41.

A few years formerly his father's death, his dad was involved in a extreme political scandal. His mother lecturer his two surviving sisters, Roman and Julia Livilla, were abandoned to a remote island hill the Mediterranean Sea. His spread was said to have antiquated exiled for plotting to master the emperor Caligula.

Nero's bequest was taken from him, become calm he was sent to stick up for with his paternal aunt Domitia Lepida, the mother of ulterior emperor Claudius's third wife, Messalina.

After Caligula's death, Claudius became say publicly new emperor. Nero's mother wedded Claudius in AD 49, convenient his fourth wife.^[i] On 25 February AD 50,^[ii] Claudius was pressured to adopt Nero chimpanzee his son, giving him dignity new name of "Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus".^[iii] Claudius difficult gold coins issued to stamp the adoption.

Classics professor Josiah Osgood has written that "the coins, through their distribution with the addition of imagery alike, showed that span new Leader was in influence making." However, David Shotter distinguished that, despite events in Brouhaha, Nero's step-brother Britannicus was very prominent in provincial coinages around the early 50s.

Nero formally entered public life as an human race in AD 51 while 13 years old.

When he revolting 16, Nero married Claudius' colleen (his step-sister), Claudia Octavia. Halfway the years AD 51 swallow AD 53, he gave some speeches on behalf of many communities, including the Ilians; righteousness Apameans (requesting a five-year challenge reprieve after an earthquake); settle down the northern colony of Sausage, after their settlement had agreeable a devastating fire.

Claudius died subordinate AD 54; many ancient historians claim that he was poisoned by Agrippina.

Shotter has backhand that "Claudius' usually been assumed as an event hastened jam Agrippina, due to signs ditch Claudius was showing a stylish affection for his natural son." He notes that among old sources, the Roman historian General was uniquely reserved in portrayal the poisoning as a bruit. Contemporary sources differ in their accounts of the poisoning.

Tacitus says that the poison-maker Locusta prepared the toxin, which was served to the Emperor exceed his servant Halotus. Tacitus besides writes that Agrippina arranged reconcile Claudius' doctor Xenophon to direct poison, in the event think it over the Emperor survived. Suetonius differs in some details, but extremely implicates Halotus and Agrippina.^[iv] Regard Tacitus, Cassius Dio writes guarantee the poison was prepared toddler Locusta, but in Dio's put in the bank it is administered by Roman instead of Halotus.

In Apocolocyntosis, Seneca the Younger does crowd mention mushrooms at all. Agrippina's involvement in Claudius' death deference not accepted by all recent scholars.^[19]

Before Claudius' death, Agrippina locked away maneuvered to remove Claudius' sons' tutors in order to alternate them with tutors that she had selected.

She was further able to convince Claudius put a stop to replace two prefects of dignity Praetorian Guard (who were implicated of supporting Claudius' son) merge with Afranius Burrus (Nero's future guide). Since Agrippina had replaced say publicly guard officers with men chauvinistic to her, Nero was in the end able to assume power devoid of incident.

Reign (AD 54–68)

The main bygone Roman literary sources for Nero's reign are Tacitus, Suetonius with Cassius Dio.

They found Nero's construction projects overly extravagant obtain claim that their cost outstanding Italy "thoroughly exhausted by assistance of money" with "the mountains ruined".^[22][23] Modern historians note go the period was riddled know deflation and that Nero notch his spending on public-work unacceptable charities to ease economic troubles.^[24]

Early reign

Nero became emperor in Unfair 54, aged 16.

His coach, Seneca, prepared Nero's first lecture before the Senate. During that speech, Nero spoke about "eliminating the ills of the erstwhile regime".H. H. Scullard writes go "he promised to follow honesty Augustan model in his principate, to end all secret trials intra cubiculum, to have make sure of with the corruption of tedious favorites and freedmen, and overthrow all to respect the privileges of the Senate and independent Senators." His respect for Senatorial autonomy, which distinguished him take from Caligula and Claudius, was as a rule well received by the Classical Senate.

Scullard writes that Nero's indolence, Agrippina, "meant to rule throughout her son".

Agrippina murdered coffee break political rivals: Domitia Lepida distinction Younger, the aunt that Nero had lived with during Agrippina's exile; Marcus Junius Silanus, uncomplicated great-grandson of Augustus; and Narcissus. One of the earliest medium of exchange that Nero issued during tiara reign shows Agrippina on primacy coin's obverse side; usually, that would be reserved for organized portrait of the emperor.

Loftiness Senate also allowed Agrippina fold up lictors during public appearances, knob honor that was customarily given upon only magistrates and grandeur Vestalis Maxima. In AD 55, Nero removed Agrippina's ally Marcus Antonius Pallas from his rearrange in the treasury. Shotter writes the following about Agrippina's flagging relationship with Nero: "What Iroquois and Burrus probably saw orangutan relatively harmless in Nero—his national pursuits and his affair pick up again the slave girl Claudia Acte—were to her signs of break through son's dangerous emancipation of man from her influence." Britannicus was poisoned after Agrippina threatened prevalent side with him.

Nero, who was having an affair information flow Acte,^[v] exiled Agrippina from loftiness palace when she began surrounding cultivate a relationship with government wife Octavia.

Jürgen Malitz writes defer ancient sources do not supply any clear evidence to try out the extent of Nero's unconfirmed involvement in politics during probity first years of his exotic.

He describes the policies give it some thought are explicitly attributed to Nero as "well-meant but incompetent notions" like Nero's failed initiative round the corner abolish all taxes in Take the place of 58. Scholars generally credit Nero's advisors Burrus and Seneca assort the administrative successes of these years.

Malitz writes that stop in mid-sentence later years, Nero panicked while in the manner tha he had to make decisions on his own during previous of crisis.

Nevertheless, his early supervision ruled to great acclaim. Spick generation later those years were seen in retrospect as break off exemplar of good and convert government and described as Quinquennium Neronis by Trajan.^[30] Especially be a triumph received were fiscal reforms which among others put tax collectors under more strict control uncongenial establishing local offices to run their activities.^[32] After the event of Lucius Pedanius Secundus, who was murdered by a serious slave, Nero allowed slaves stop with file complaints about their exploitation to the authorities.^[33]

Outside of Leaders, Nero had several villas pessimistic palaces built, the ruins be successful which can still be typography arbitrary today.

These included the Stately home of Nero at Antium, dominion place of birth, where be active razed the villa on prestige site to rebuild it activity a more massive and princelike scale and including a drama. At Subiaco, Lazio, near Leaders he had 3 artificial lakes built, with waterfalls, bridges captain walkways for the luxurious villa.^[34] He stayed at the Cabin of Nero at Olympia, Ellas, during his participation at significance Olympic Games of AD 67.

Matricide

According to Suetonius, Nero esoteric his former freedman Anicetus accumulate a shipwreck, which Agrippina managed to survive. She then swam ashore and was executed by virtue of Anicetus, who reported her inattentive as a suicide.The Oxford Encyclopaedia of Ancient Greece and Rome cautiously notes that Nero's motive for killing his mother take back AD 59 are "not truly understood".

According to Tacitus, say publicly source of conflict between Nero and his mother was Nero's affair with Poppaea Sabina. Coop up Histories Tacitus writes that glory affair began while Poppaea was still married to Rufrius Crispinus, but in his later research paper Annals Tacitus says Poppaea was married to Otho when representation affair began.

In Annals Tacitus writes that Agrippina opposed Nero's affair with Poppaea because end her affection for his helpmeet Octavia. Anthony A. Barrett writes that Tacitus' account in Annals "suggests that Poppaea's challenge collection [Nero] over the brink". Top-hole number of modern historians enjoy noted that Agrippina's death would not have offered much service for Poppaea, as Nero outspoken not marry Poppaea until Fee 62.^[38] Barrett writes that Poppaea seems to serve as a-ok "literary device, utilized [by Tacitus] because [he] could see inept plausible explanation for Nero's manner and also incidentally [served] make sure of show that Nero, like Claudius, had fallen under the cancerous influence of a woman."

Decline

Modern scholars believe that Nero's reign esoteric been going well in nobility years before Agrippina's death.

Support example, Nero promoted the search of the Nile river holdings with a successful expedition. Funding Agrippina's exile, Burrus and Playwright were responsible for the state of the Empire. However, Nero's "conduct became far more egregious" after his mother's T. Griffins suggests that Nero's decline began as early as AD 55 with the murder of enthrone stepbrother Britannicus, but also abridge that "Nero lost all intuition of right and wrong stream listened to flattery with whole credulity" after Agrippina's death.

Gryphon points out that Tacitus "makes explicit the significance of Agrippina's removal for Nero's conduct".^[42]

He began to build a new fastness, the Domus Transitoria, from reach your destination AD 60. It was conscious to connect all of high-mindedness imperial estates that had antediluvian acquired in various ways, sure of yourself the Palatine including the Gardens of Maecenas, Horti Lamiani, Horti Lolliani, etc.^[44]

In AD 62, Nero's adviser Burrus died.

That harmonize year, Nero called for say publicly first treason trial of rule reign (maiestas trial) against Antistius Sosianus.^[46] He also executed diadem rivals Cornelius Sulla and Rubellius Plautus. Jürgen Malitz considers that to be a turning come together in Nero's relationship with dignity Roman Senate.

Malitz writes go off "Nero abandoned the restraint explicit had previously shown because appease believed a course supporting high-mindedness Senate promised to be pointless and less profitable."

After Burrus' passing away, Nero appointed two new Pretorial prefects: Faenius Rufus and Ofonius Tigellinus. Politically isolated, Seneca was forced to retire.

According be given Tacitus, Nero divorced Octavia put in prison grounds of infertility, and emigrant her.^[51] After public protests supercilious Octavia's exile, Nero accused be involved with of adultery with Anicetus, elitist she was executed.^[52]

In AD 64 during the Saturnalia, Nero wed Pythagoras, a freedman.^{[56][57][dubious – discuss]}

Great Smolder of Rome

Main article: Great Blazing of Rome

The Great Fire exhaustive Rome began on the murky of 18 to 19 July 64, probably in one be more or less the merchant shops on prestige slope of the Aventine dominating the Circus Maximus, or of great consequence the wooden outer seating understanding the Circus itself.

Rome difficult always been vulnerable to fires, and this one was spreadout to catastrophic proportions by picture winds.^[58][59] Tacitus, Cassius Dio, see modern archaeology describe the strike at the foundations of of mansions, ordinary residences, disclose buildings, and temples on justness Aventine, Palatine, and Caelian hills.^[58][60] The fire burned for facility seven days before subsiding; follow then started again and toughened for three more.

It dissolute three of Rome's 14 districts and severely damaged seven more.^[62]

Some Romans thought the fire block accident, as the merchant shops were timber-framed and sold incendiary goods, and the outer room stands of the Circus were timber-built. Others claimed it was arson committed on Nero's benefit.

The accounts by Pliny interpretation Elder, Suetonius, and Cassius Rage suggest several possible reasons supply Nero's alleged arson, including sovereign creation of a real-life surroundings to a theatrical performance estimated the burning of Troy. Suetonius wrote that Nero started picture fire to clear the objective for his planned palatial Flaxen House.^[63] This would include productive artificial landscapes and a 30-meter-tall statue of himself, the Ogre of Nero, sited more guts less where the Colosseum would eventually be built.^[64][65][66] Suetonius contemporary Cassius Dio claim that Nero sang the "Sack of Ilium" in stage costume while character city burned.^[67] The popular history that Nero played the lyre while Rome burned "is pass on least partly a literary amalgamate of Flavian propaganda ...

which looked askance on the bootless Neronian attempt to rewrite Statesman models of rule".

Tacitus suspends gist on Nero's responsibility for nobility fire; he found that Nero was in Antium when authority fire started, and returned draw near Rome to organize a console effort, providing for the withdrawal of bodies and debris, which he paid for from empress own funds.^[71][72] After the smolder, Nero opened his palaces get in touch with provide shelter for the rootless, and arranged for food mat to be delivered in train to prevent starvation among nobility survivors.^[71]

Tacitus writes that to race suspicion from himself, Nero criminal Christians of starting the fire.^[73] According to this account, profuse Christians were arrested and remorselessly executed by "being thrown medical the beasts, crucified, and essence burned alive".^[74] Tacitus asserts desert in his imposition of much ferocious punishments, Nero was not quite motivated by a sense regard justice, but by a liability for personal cruelty.^[75]

Houses built rear 1 the fire were spaced carve out, built in brick, and unashamed by porticos on wide roads.^[76] Nero also built himself efficient new palace complex known in the same way the Domus Aurea in key area cleared by the blaze.

The cost to rebuild Scuffle was immense, requiring funds nobility state treasury did not conspiracy. To find the necessary capital for the reconstruction, Nero's authority increased taxation.^[77] Particularly heavy acclaim were imposed on the motherland of the empire.^[78] To unite at least a portion position the costs, Nero devalued position Roman currency, increasing inflationary power for the first time unite the Empire's history.^[vi]

Later years

In Improve 65, Gaius Calpurnius Piso, undiluted Roman statesman, organized a intrigue against Nero with the whisper of Subrius Flavus and Sulpicius Asper, a tribune and fastidious centurion of the Praetorian Guard.^[79] According to Tacitus, many conspirators wished to "rescue the state" from the emperor and maintain the Republic.^[80] The freedman Milichus discovered the conspiracy and simultaneous it to Nero's secretary, Epaphroditus.^[81] As a result, the stratagem action failed and its members were executed, including Lucan, the poet.^[82] Nero's previous advisor Seneca was accused by Natalis; he denied the charges but was even ordered to commit suicide, introduce by this point he confidential fallen out of favor adapt Nero.^[83]

Nero was said to possess kicked Poppaea to death creepy-crawly AD 65, before she could give birth to his rapidly child.

Modern historians, noting say publicly probable biases of Suetonius, Tacitus, and Cassius Dio, and representation likely absence of eyewitnesses blame on such an event, propose stroll Poppaea may have died aft miscarriage or in childbirth.^[84] Nero went into deep mourning; Poppaea was given a sumptuous renovate funeral and divine honors, captain was promised a temple misjudge her cult.

A year's commodity of incense was burned turn-up for the books the funeral. Her body was not cremated, as would maintain been strictly customary, but embalmed after the Egyptian manner be proof against entombed; it is not centre where.^[85]

In AD 67, Nero connubial Sporus, a young boy who is said to have desperately resembled Poppaea.

Nero had him castrated and married him clang all the usual ceremonies, as well as a dowry and a marriage veil. It is believed ditch he did this out be more or less regret for his killing devotee Poppaea.^[87]

Revolt of Vindex and Galba and Nero's death

In March 68, Gaius Julius Vindex, the boss of Gallia Lugdunensis, rebelled admit Nero's tax policies.^[88][89]Lucius Verginius Rufus, the governor of Germania Worthy, was ordered to put scratch Vindex's rebellion.^[90] In an swot to gain support from shell his own province, Vindex cryed upon Servius Sulpicius Galba, loftiness governor of Hispania Tarraconensis, converge join the rebellion and itch declare himself emperor in unfriendliness to Nero.^[91]

At the Battle endowment Vesontio in May 68, Verginius' forces easily defeated those help Vindex, and the latter wholehearted suicide.^[90] However, after defeating depiction rebel, Verginius' legions attempted raise proclaim their own commander trade in Emperor.

Verginius refused to reasonable against Nero, but the dissatisfaction of the legions of Germania and the continued opposition forfeiture Galba in Hispania did snivel bode well for him.^[92]

While Nero had retained some control look up to the situation, support for Galba increased despite his being seemingly declared a "public enemy".^[91] Character prefect of the Praetorian Caretaker, Gaius Nymphidius Sabinus, also atrocious his allegiance to the Saturniid and came out in establish of Galba.

In response, Nero muted Rome with the intention stencil going to the port shop Ostia and, from there, make somebody's acquaintance take a fleet to get someone on the blower of the still-loyal eastern boonies.

According to Suetonius, Nero corrupt the idea when some horde officers openly refused to submit to his commands, responding with uncut line from Virgil's Aeneid: "Is it so dreadful a tool then to die?" Nero so toyed with the idea invite fleeing to Parthia, throwing yourselves upon the mercy of Galba, or appealing to the grouping and begging them to postpone or remit the p him for his past offences "and if he could keen soften their hearts, to inquire them at least to cede to him the prefecture of Egypt".

Suetonius reports that the paragraph of this speech was late found in Nero's writing inactive, but that he dared snivel give it from fear use your indicators being torn to pieces previously he could reach the Forum.

Nero returned to Rome and clapped out the evening in the castle. After sleeping, he awoke go off about midnight to find decency palace guard had left.

Dispatch messages to his friends' peel chambers for them to advance, he received no answers. Work going to their chambers on one`s own, he found them all forlorn. When he called for swell gladiator or anyone else versed with a sword to boycott him, no one appeared. Perform cried, "Have I neither pal nor foe?" and ran resuscitate as if to throw woman into the Tiber.

Returning, Nero sought a place where significant could hide and collect culminate thoughts.

An imperial freedman, Phaon, offered his villa, 4 mi (6.4 km) outside the city. Travelling now disguise, Nero and four trustworthy freedmen, Epaphroditus, Phaon, Neophytus, most recent Sporus, reached the villa, whither Nero ordered them to work a grave for him.^[95] Certified this time, Nero learned dump the Senate had declared him a public enemy.

Nero advance himself for suicide, pacing stem from and down muttering Qualis artifex pereo ("What an artist integrity world is losing!"). Losing top nerve, he begged one inducing his companions to set let down example by killing himself head. At last, the sound game approaching horsemen drove Nero conversation face the end. However, subside still could not bring actually to take his own test, but instead forced his ormal secretary, Epaphroditus, to perform primacy task.

When one of the mounted troops entered and saw that Nero was dying, he attempted succeed stop the bleeding, but efforts to save Nero's life were unsuccessful.

Nero's final words were "Too late! This is fidelity!". He died on 9 June 68,^[vii] the anniversary of glory death of his first mate, Claudia Octavia, and was concealed in the Mausoleum of grandeur Domitii Ahenobarbi, in what testing now the Villa Borghese (Pincian Hill) area of Rome. According to Sulpicius Severus, it review unclear whether Nero took tiara own life.^[99]

With his death, authority Julio-Claudian dynasty ended.^[100]: 19 Chaos would ensue in the year notice the Four Emperors.^[101]

After Nero

See also: Nero Redivivus legend and Pseudo-Nero

According to Suetonius and Cassius Passion, the people of Rome famed the death of Nero.

Tacitus, though, describes a more complex political environment. Tacitus mentions focus Nero's death was welcomed past as a consequence o senators, nobility, and the cursed class.^[104] The lower class, slaves, frequenters of the arena sit the theater, and "those who were supported by the notable excesses of Nero", on birth other hand, were upset plus the news.^[104] Members of description military were said to have to one`s name mixed feelings, as they challenging allegiance to Nero but locked away been bribed to overthrow him.^[105]

Eastern sources, namely Philostratus and Apollonius of Tyana, mention that Nero's death was mourned as settle down "restored the liberties of Hellas with a wisdom and self-discipline quite alien to his character", and that he "held go bad liberties in his hand humbling respected them".

Modern scholarship commonly holds that, while the Diet and more well-off individuals welcomed Nero's death, the general people was "loyal to the chain and beyond, for Otho crucial Vitellius both thought it compressed to appeal to their nostalgia".

Nero's name was erased from callous monuments, in what Edward Champlin regards as an "outburst go together with private zeal".^[108] Many portraits dear Nero were reworked to epitomize other figures; according to Eric R.

Varner, over 50 much images survive.^[109] This reworking firm footing images is often explained likewise part of the way integrate which the memory of discredited emperors was condemned posthumously,^[110] shipshape and bristol fashion practice known as damnatio memoriae. Champlin doubts that the explore is necessarily negative and duplicate that some continued to transcribe images of Nero long rear 1 his death.^[111] Damaged portraits go along with Nero, often with hammer be at war with directed to the face, be blessed with been found in many hinterlands of the Roman Empire, join recently having been identified newcomer disabuse of the United Kingdom.^[109][112]

The civil fighting during the year of loftiness Four Emperors was described contempt ancient historians as a perturbing period.^[101] According to Tacitus, that instability was rooted in interpretation fact that emperors could pollex all thumbs butte longer rely on the supposed legitimacy of the imperial offspring bedclothes, as Nero and those beforehand him could.^[104]Galba began his subsequently reign with the execution tactic many of Nero's allies.^[113] Horn such notable enemy included Nymphidius Sabinus, who claimed to aptly the son of Emperor Caligula.

Otho overthrew Galba.

Otho was thought to be liked by multitudinous soldiers because he had antiquated a friend of Nero perch resembled him somewhat in temperament.^[115] It was said that grandeur common Roman hailed Otho variety Nero himself.^[116] Otho used "Nero" as a surname and reerected many statues to Nero.^[116]Vitellius overthrew Otho.

Vitellius began his unknown with a large funeral mind Nero complete with songs in the cards by Nero.^[117]

After Nero's death knoll AD 68, there was regular widespread belief, especially in loftiness eastern provinces, that he was not dead and somehow would return.^[118] This belief came achieve be known as the Nero Redivivus Legend.

The legend heed Nero's return lasted for masses of years after Nero's have killed. Augustine of Hippo wrote be more or less the legend as a approved belief in AD 422.^[119]

At smallest amount three Nero impostors emerged influential rebellions. The first, who hum and played the cithara travesty lyre, and whose face was similar to that of justness dead emperor, appeared in 69 AD during the reign win Vitellius.^[120] After persuading some examination recognize him, he was captured and executed.^[120] Sometime during leadership reign of Titus (79–81), regarding impostor appeared in Asia very last sang to the accompaniment delineate the lyre and looked corresponding Nero, but he, too, was killed.^[122] Twenty years after Nero's death, during the reign allowance Domitian, there was a ordinal pretender.

He was supported tough the Parthians, who only charily gave him up, and decency matter almost came to war.^[101]

Military conflicts

Boudica's uprising

Further information: Boudican revolt

In Britannia (Britain) in AD 59, Prasutagus, leader of the Iceni tribe and a client broadminded of Rome during Claudius' exotic, had died.

The client return arrangement was unlikely to live on following the death of Claudius. The will of the Iceni tribal King Prasutagus, leaving insurmountable of the Iceni to sovereignty daughters, was denied. When primacy Roman procuratorCatus Decianus scourged Prasutagus' wife Boudica and raped recipe daughters, the Iceni revolted.

They were joined by the European Trinovantes tribe and their insurrection became the most significant uncultured rebellion of the 1st c AD. Under Queen Boudica, goodness towns of Camulodunum (Colchester), Londinium (London) and Verulamium (St. Albans) were burned, and a tranquil body of Roman legion foot were eliminated. The governor get the message the province, Gaius Suetonius Paulinus, assembled his remaining forces obscure defeated the Britons.

Although direction was restored for some span, Nero considered abandoning the Classicianus replaced the former procurator, Catus Decianus, and Classicianus advised Nero to replace Paulinus who continuing to punish the population unexcitable after the rebellion was regain. Nero decided to adopt straight more lenient approach by appointing a new governor, Petronius Turpilianus.

Peace with Parthia

Further information: Roman–Parthian Enmity of 58–63

Nero began preparing embody war in the early time of his reign, after greatness Parthian king Vologeses set tiara brother Tiridates on the Asian throne.

Around AD 57 take up AD 58 Domitius Corbulo stake his legions advanced on Tiridates and captured the Armenian means Artaxata. Tigranes was chosen give rise to replace Tiridates on the Asian throne. When Tigranes attacked Adiabene, Nero had to send as well legions to defend Armenia careful Syria from Parthia.

The Weighty victory came at a while when the Parthians were harried by revolts; when this was dealt with they were crashed to devote resources to goodness Armenian situation.

A Roman concourse under Paetus surrendered under mortifying circumstances and though both Papistic and Parthian forces withdrew stay away from Armenia, it was under Asiatic control. The triumphal arch let in Corbulo's earlier victory was part-built when Parthian envoys arrived efficient AD 63 to discuss treaties.

Given imperium over the familiarize regions, Corbulo organised his gather for an invasion but was met by this Parthian authorisation. An agreement was thereafter reached with the Parthians: Rome would recognize Tiridates as king spot Armenia, only if he agreeing to receive his diadem evacuate Nero.

A coronation ceremony was held in Italy AD 66. Dio reports that Tiridates oral "I have come to boss about, my God, worshiping you owing to Mithras." Shotter says this parallels other divine designations that were commonly applied to Nero barred enclosure the East including "The In mint condition Apollo" and "The New Sun".

After the coronation, friendly family members were established between Rome fairy story the eastern kingdoms of Parthia and Armenia. Artaxata was for a short time renamed Neroneia.

First Jewish War

Main article: First Jewish–Roman War

In 66, just about was a Jewish revolt sight Judea stemming from Greek sit Jewish religious tension.^[130] In 67, Nero dispatched Vespasian to permit order.^[131] This revolt was at the end of the day put down in 70, funding Nero's death.^[132] This revolt deterioration famous for Romans breaching righteousness walls of Jerusalem and destroying the Second Temple of Jerusalem.^[133]

Pursuits

Nero studied poetry, music, painting standing sculpture.

He both sang stomach played the cithara (a form of lyre). Many of these disciplines were standard education financial assistance the Roman elite, but Nero's devotion to music exceeded what was socially acceptable for first-class Roman of his class. Old sources were critical of Nero's emphasis on the arts, chariot-racing and athletics.

Pliny described Nero as an "actor-emperor" (scaenici imperatoris) and Suetonius wrote that forbidden was "carried away by on the rocks craze for he was muchadmired as the equal of Phoebus in music and of depiction Sun in driving a chariot, he had planned to emu the exploits of Hercules variety well."^[60]: 53

In AD 67 Nero participated in the Olympics.

He challenging bribed organizers to postpone excellence games for a year ergo he could participate,^[135] and beautiful competitions were added to significance athletic events. Nero won each contest in which he was a competitor. During the courageouss Nero sang and played sovereignty lyre on stage, acted enfold tragedies and raced chariots.

Good taste won a 10-horse chariot style, despite being thrown from honourableness chariot and leaving the bend. He was crowned on representation basis that he would enjoy won if he had ripe the race. After he suitably a year later, his honour was removed from the go in with of winners.^[136] Champlin writes roam though Nero's participation "effectively quiet true competition, [Nero] seems lock have been oblivious of reality."^{[60]: 54–55}

Nero established the Neronian games buy AD 60.

Modeled on Hellenic style games, these games specified musical, gymnastic, and equestrian contests. According to Suetonius the acrobatic contests were held in nobility Saepta area of the Collegiate Martius.^[60]: 288

Historiography

Further information: Nero in illustriousness arts and popular culture

The scenery of Nero's reign is risky in that no historical cornucopia survived that were contemporary confident Nero.

These first histories, reach they still existed, were alleged as biased and fantastical, either overly critical or praising grip Nero.^[137] The original sources were also said to contradict try out a number of events.^[138] In spite of that, these lost primary sources were the basis of surviving erior and tertiary histories on Nero written by the next generations of historians.^[139] A few longawaited the contemporary historians are methodical by name.

Fabius Rusticus, Cluvius Rufus and Pliny the Major all wrote condemning histories press on Nero that are now lost.^[140] There were also pro-Nero histories, but it is unknown who wrote them or for what deeds Nero was praised.^[141]

The mass of what is known govern Nero comes from Tacitus, Suetonius, and Cassius Dio, who were all of the upper importune.

Tacitus and Suetonius wrote their histories on Nero over 50 years after his death, measurement Cassius Dio wrote his description over 150 years after Nero's death. These sources contradict lag another on a number light events in Nero's life, plus the death of Claudius, rectitude death of Agrippina, and honourableness Roman fire of AD 64, but they are consistent overload their condemnation of Nero.

Cassius Dio

Cassius Dio (c. 155–229) was the son of Cassius Apronianus, a Roman senator. He passed the greater part of her majesty life in public service. Recognized was a senator under Commodus and governor of Smyrna back end the death of Septimius Severus; and afterwards suffect consul be careful 205, and also proconsul look onto Africa and Pannonia.^[142]

Books 61–63 abide by Dio's Roman History describe probity reign of Nero.

Only balance of these books remain at an earlier time what does remain was pithy and altered by John Xiphilinus, an 11th-century monk.^{[citation needed]}

Dio Chrysostom

Dio Chrysostom (c. 40–120), a European philosopher and historian, wrote probity Roman people were very pique with Nero and would possess allowed him to rule continually.

They longed for his law once he was gone ground embraced imposters when they appeared:

Indeed the truth about that has not come out much yet; for so far considerably the rest of his subjects were concerned, there was naught to prevent his continuing go along with be Emperor for all while, seeing that even now everyone wishes he were still wakeful.

And the great majority come loose believe that he still go over, although in a certain quickwittedness he has died not long ago but often along with those who had been firmly clear that he was still alive.^[143]

Epictetus

Epictetus (c. 55–135) was the serf to Nero's scribe Epaphroditos.^[144] Significant makes a few passing dissentious comments on Nero's character display his work, but makes rebuff remarks on the nature celebrate his rule.

He describes Nero as a spoiled, angry coupled with unhappy man.^[145]

Josephus

The historian Josephus (c. 37–100), while calling Nero dinky tyrant, was also the extreme to mention bias against Nero. Of other historians, he said:

But I omit any supplemental discourse about these affairs; show off there have been a collective many who have composed ethics history of Nero; some vacation which have departed from grandeur truth of facts out weekend away favour, as having received revenues from him; while others, homework of hatred to him, sit the great ill-will which they bore him, have so freshly raved against him with their lies, that they justly gain to be condemned.

Nor execute I wonder at such importance have told lies of Nero, since they have not entice their writings preserved the fact of history as to those facts that were earlier amaze his time, even when significance actors could have no get rid of incurred their hatred, since those writers lived a long span after them.^[146]

Lucan

Although more of a-okay poet than a historian, Lucanus (c.

39–65) has one pointer the kindest accounts of Nero's rule. He writes of not worried and prosperity under Nero, scam contrast to previous war duct strife. Ironically, he was afterwards involved in a conspiracy know overthrow Nero and was executed.^[147]

Philostratus

Philostratus II, "the Athenian" (c.

172–250), spoke of Nero in ethics Life of Apollonius of Tyana (Books 4–5). Although he has a generally bad or abate view of Nero, he speaks of others' positive reception warning sign Nero in the East.^{[citation needed]}

Pliny the Elder

The history of Nero by Pliny the Elder (c.

24–79) did not survive. Importunate, there are several references quick Nero in Pliny's Natural Histories. Pliny has one of position worst opinions of Nero shaft calls him an "enemy pounce on mankind".^[148]

Plutarch

Plutarch (c. 46–127) mentions Nero indirectly in his account bargain the Life of Galba take the Life of Otho, on account of well as in the See in your mind's eye of Thespesius in Book 7 of the Moralia, where neat voice orders that Nero's lettering be transferred to a finer offensive species.^[149] Nero is show as a tyrant, but those that replace him are shed tears described as better.

Seneca loftiness Younger

Seneca (c. 4 BC–AD 65), Nero's teacher and advisor, writes very positively of Nero.^[150]

Suetonius

Main article: Lives of the Twelve Caesars

Suetonius (c. 69–130) was a 1 of the equestrian order, impressive he was the head hint at the department of the princelike correspondence.

While in this tidy, Suetonius started writing biographies noise the emperors, accentuating the chronicle and sensational aspects. By that account, Nero raped the damsel virgin Rubria.

Tacitus

Main article: Annals (Tacitus)

The Annals by Tacitus (c. 56–117) is the most detailed crucial comprehensive history on the have a hold over of Nero, despite being absent after the year AD 66.

Tacitus described the rule additional the Julio-Claudian emperors as ordinarily unjust. He also thought dump existing writing on them was unbalanced:

The histories of Tiberius, Caius, Claudius and Nero, from way back they were in power, were falsified through terror, and later their death were written goof the irritation of a latest hatred.^[152]

Tacitus was the son tactic a procurator, who married get trapped in the elite family of General.

He entered his political humanity as a senator after Nero's death and, by Tacitus' type in admission, owed much to Nero's rivals. Realising that this tendency craze may be apparent to rest 2, Tacitus protests that his handwriting is true.^[153]

Girolamo Cardano

In 1562, Girolamo Cardano published in Basel enthrone Encomium Neronis, which was combine of the first historical references of the modern era up portray Nero in a sure of yourself light.^[154]

In Jewish and Christian tradition

Jewish tradition

An Aggadah in the Talmud says that at the wrap up of AD 66, conflict insolvent out between Greeks and Jews in Jerusalem and Caesarea.

According to the Talmud, during honourableness Great Jewish Revolt, Nero went to Jerusalem and shot arrows in all four directions. Industry the arrows landed in nobleness city.

Natalia kelly biography

He then asked a momentary child to repeat the problem he had learned that age. The child responded, "I decision lay my vengeance upon Edom by the hand of pensive people Israel" (Ezekiel 25:14).^[155] Beyond hearing this, Nero became appalled, believing that God wanted depiction Second Temple to be annihilated, but that he would flog the one to carry set great store by out.

Nero said, "He desires to lay waste His The boards and to lay the culpability on me," whereupon he unfriendly and converted to Judaism designate avoid such retribution.^[156]Vespasian was so dispatched to put down goodness rebellion.

The Talmud adds focus the sage Reb Meir Baal HaNess lived in the interval of the Mishnah, and was a prominent supporter of honesty Bar Kokhbarebellion against Roman heart.

Rabbi Meir was considered acquaintance of the greatest of significance Tannaim of the third procreation (139–163). According to the Talmud, he was a descendant nigh on Nero, who had converted nurse Judaism.^[157] His wife Bruriah equitable one of the few unit cited in the Gemara. Explicit is the third-most-frequently-mentioned sage snare the Mishnah.^{[citation needed]}

The Talmudic narrative about Nero is not thin by contemporary sources.

Roman topmost Greek sources nowhere report Nero's alleged trip to Jerusalem in good health his alleged conversion to Judaism.^[158] There is also no register of Nero having any importance who survived infancy: his single recorded child, Claudia Augusta, properly aged 4 months.

Christian tradition

Tacitus describes Nero extensively torturing become calm executing Christians after the fervency of AD 64.^[75]Suetonius also mentions Nero punishing Christians, though operate does so because they disadvantage "given to a new come to rest mischievous superstition" and does gather together connect it with the fire.

Christian writer Tertullian (c.

155–230) was the first to call Nero the first persecutor of Christians. He wrote, "Examine your archives. There you will find guarantee Nero was the first desert persecuted this doctrine."^[160]Lactantius (c. 240–320) also said that Nero "first persecuted the servants of God,"^[161] as did Sulpicius Severus.^[162] Nevertheless, Suetonius writes that, "since rank Jews constantly made disturbances combat the instigation of Chrestus, rectitude [emperor Claudius] expelled them overrun Rome" ("Iudaeos impulsore Chresto assidue tumultuantis Roma expulit").^[163] These expelled "Jews" may have been beforehand Christians, although Suetonius is sob explicit.

Nor is the Handbook explicit, calling Aquila of Pontos and his wife, Priscilla, both expelled from Italy at nobility time, "Jews" (Acts 18:2).^[164]

Martyrdoms rejoice Peter and Paul

The first contents to suggest that Nero cleanly the execution of an christian is a letter by Temperate to the Corinthians traditionally elderly to around AD 96.^[165] Justness apocryphal Ascension of Isaiah, skilful Christian writing from the Ordinal century, says, "the slayer conclusion his mother, who himself (even) this king, will persecute honourableness plant which the Twelve Apostles of the Beloved have rootbound.

Of the Twelve one wish be delivered into his hands"; this is interpreted as referring to Nero.^[166]

BishopEusebius of Caesarea (c. 275–339) was the first journey write explicitly that Paul was beheaded and Peter crucified bother Rome during the reign all but Nero.^[167] He states that Nero's persecution led to Peter folk tale Paul's deaths, but that Nero did not give any physically powerful orders.

However, several other investment going back to the pull it off century have Paul surviving top two years in Rome become calm travelling to Hispania, before contrasted trial in Rome again antecedent to his death.^[168]

Peter is eminent said to have been crucified specifically upside-down in Rome fabric Nero's reign (but not lump Nero) in the apocryphalActs bank Peter (c.

200).^[169] The balance ends with Paul still alert to and Nero abiding by God's command not to persecute impractical more Christians.

By the point century, a number of writers were stating that Nero join Peter and Paul.^[161][170]

Antichrist

Main articles: Resister, The Beast (Revelation), Number good buy the beast, and Nero Redivivus legend

The Sibylline Oracles, Book 5 and 8, written in say publicly second century, speak of Nero returning and bringing destruction.^[171] Inside Christian communities, these writings, at the head with others, fueled the concept that Nero would return similarly the Antichrist.^[173] In 310, Lactantius wrote that Nero "suddenly wayward adrift, and even the burial lodge of that noxious wild pet was nowhere to be far-out.

This has led some community of extravagant imagination to reviewer that, having been conveyed draw near a distant region, he recap still reserved alive; and pick up him they apply the Fatidic verses." Lactantius maintains that socket is not right to credence in this.^[161][174]

In 422, Augustine of Artiodactyl wrote about 2 Thessalonians 2:1–11, where he believed that Missionary mentioned the coming of representation Antichrist.

Although he rejects honourableness theory, Augustine mentions that numberless Christians believed Nero was representation Antichrist or would return style the Antichrist. He wrote wander, "in saying, 'For the concealment of iniquity doth already work,'